Level 3 · Expert
Tensor products and Bell inequalities
In quantum mechanics, entanglement arises when the state of a composite system cannot be written as a tensor product of the states of its subsystems. For a bipartite system composed of subsystems \(A\) and \(B\), a pure state is entangled if:
\[ |\psi\rangle_{AB} \neq |\psi\rangle_A \otimes |\psi\rangle_B \]
Any bipartite pure state can be written using the Schmidt decomposition:
\[ |\psi\rangle_{AB}=\sum_i \sqrt{\lambda_i}\,|u_i\rangle_A \otimes |v_i\rangle_B \]
where \(\lambda_i \ge 0\) and \(\sum_i \lambda_i = 1\). The state is entangled if more than one Schmidt coefficient is nonzero.
A common quantitative measure of bipartite entanglement is the von Neumann entropy of the reduced density matrix:
\[ S(\rho_A)=-\mathrm{Tr}(\rho_A\log\rho_A), \quad \text{where } \rho_A=\mathrm{Tr}_B(\rho_{AB}) \]
A paradigmatic example is the Bell state:
\[ |\Phi^+\rangle=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|00\rangle+|11\rangle) \]
which is maximally entangled. Although the global state is pure, each subsystem is maximally mixed: \(\rho_A=\frac{1}{2}I\). This explains why measurements on individual particles appear random even though the global state contains perfect correlations.
The nonclassical nature of these correlations appears in violations of Bell inequalities. In the CHSH scenario:
\[ S=\langle A\otimes B\rangle + \langle A\otimes B'\rangle + \langle A'\otimes B\rangle - \langle A'\otimes B'\rangle \]
\(|S|\le 2\) for any local hidden-variable theory, while quantum mechanics allows values up to \(2\sqrt{2}\) (Tsirelson bound). Despite this nonlocal behavior, entanglement does not allow faster-than-light communication: the reduced density matrix of one subsystem is independent of measurements performed on the other, ensuring the no-signaling condition.
Applications of entanglement
- Quantum key distribution: cryptographic keys whose security is guaranteed by quantum mechanics.
- Quantum teleportation: transferring a quantum state using shared entanglement and classical communication.
- Quantum computing: entanglement between qubits enables powerful quantum algorithms.
- Quantum metrology: entangled states can improve measurement precision beyond classical limits.